![]() Experiment 3 (N = 24) replicated the findings from Experiment 1 and 2, along with the previous observation of an advantage for demonstrated over spoken presentation. Experiment 2 (N = 24) used visual demonstration of instruction sequences and found similar performance levels in forward and backward recall. In contrast, enacted recall was not influenced by recall direction. Experiment 1 (N = 24) showed that adults were more accurate in backward than forward verbal recall following spoken instructions. backward), in addition to that of presentation and recall modality, on working memory for instruction sequences in healthy young adults. The present study extended this work by investigating the impact of recall direction (forward vs. visual demonstration) and recall modality (verbal vs. Recent research has indicated that serial memory for instructions is influenced by presentation modality (spoken vs. The ability to flexibly retrieve and implement sequences of actions is essential to motor learning and planning. ![]() It should be noted that visuospatial processing might also be engaged in reversing purely verbal tasks, such as representing alphabets/digits visually in the mind's eye (Li & Lewandowsky, 1995 St Clair-Thompson & Allen, 2013). However, this account doesn't explain why other items in the sequence are not recalled with reduced accuracy when reversal is required, as is often observed in other explorations of verbal serial recall (Baker et al., 2012 Haberlandt et al., 2005 St Clair-Thompson, 2010 St Clair-Thompson & Allen, 2013 Wilde & Strauss, 2002).Within the current task context, the presence of objects laid out in front of the participant throughout the task may have increased the likelihood of scaffolding backward recall via visuospatial support (e.g., drawing a path of objects in terms of action sequences). Furthermore, at least for verbal recall of spoken instructions, they may also be able to utilize a short-lived acoustic/echoic memory trace relating to the end-sequence item. For example, age could also affect short-term memory and Jacobs (1887) research acknowledged that short-term memory gradually improved with age. Consequently, further research is required to determine the each size of information ‘chunks’ to understand the exact capacity of short-term memory.įinally, Miller’s (1956) research into short-term memory did not take into account other factors that affect capacity. Jacobs found that the student had an average span of 7.3 letters and 9.3 words, which supports Miller’s notion of 7+/-2.Īlthough Miller’s (1956) theory is supported by psychological research, he did not specify how large each ‘chunk’ of information could be and therefore we are unable to conclude the exact capacity of short-term memory. Participants had to repeat back a string of numbers or letters in the same order and the number of digits/letters was gradually increased, until the participants could no longer recall the sequence. Jacobs used a sample of 443 female students (aged from 8-19) from the North London Collegiate School. For example, Jacobs (1887) conducted an experiment using a digit span test, to examine the capacity of short-term memory for numbers and letters. ![]() Miller’s (1956) theory is supported by psychological research. When we try to remember a phone number, which has 11 digits, we chunk the information into groups, for example: 0767…819…45…34, so we only need to remember four chunks of information and not 11 individual digits. This can explain why we are able recall items like mobile phone numbers, which contain more than 7 digits. Miller believed that our short-term memory stores ‘chunks’ of information rather than individual numbers or letters. He said that we can hold seven 'items' in short-term memory, plus or minus two. ![]() Miller (1956) published a famous article entitled ‘ The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two’ in which he reviewed existing research into short-term memory.
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